Das Judentum ist eine ethnische und religiöse Gemeinschaft, es ist
die älteste bestehende monotheistische Religion. Das Judentum ist die
Mutterreligion des Christentums und des Is lams.
Nach einer Zählung aus dem Jahr 1988 leben insgesamt etwa 14,9
Millionen Juden, davon 6,9 Millionen in den USA, 2,8 Millionen in der
ehemaligen UdSSR, 520.000 in Frankreich, 545.000 in Argentinien,
610.000 in Großbritannien, rund 325.000 in Kanada und in Israel etwa
3,2 Millionen. Die Anzahl der Juden in Deutschland ist verschwindend
klein. Religion und Kultur des Judentums sind in hohem Maß durch die
Zerstreuung des jüdischen Volkes und die dadurch bedingten
Minderheitensituationen unter wechselnden örtlichen und zeitlichen
Bedingungen bestimmt.
Nach traditionellem bis zur Aufklärung vorherrschendem Selbstverständnis
besteht das Judentum in der Nachkommenschaft Abrahams über Isaak
Jakob und dessen zwoelf Söhne. Ein Jude ist, wer von einer jüdischen
Mutter abstammt oder zum Judentum übergetreten ist. Es kommt häufig
vor, dass das Judentum als Religion allein dargestellt wird und die Nationalität,
wenn auch nicht völlig, in den Hintergrund gestellt wird.
Im 19. Jahrhundert gewann die Bezeichnung Jude dadurch, dass man sie
"rassisch" verstand, einen meist antisemitisch gefärbten
neuen Aspekt. In der Folge wurden viele, die der Tradition nach nicht
mehr als Juden hätten gelten können, als Juden bezeichnet.
Dies und das Auseinanderbrechen der traditionellen Einheit zwischen
Volks- und Religionszugehörigkeit schufen die heutige Unsicherheit
und Meinungsvielfalt in Bezug auf die Definitionen "Jude"
und "Judentum".
Die Jüdische Tradition erhebt den Anspruch, dass der einzige wahre
Gott (Monotheismus) und Schöpfer der Welt Abraham und dessen
Nachkommenschaft dazu erwählte, den Glauben an den einen Gott in der
Welt zu bekennen und den offenbarten Willen Gottes vollkommen zu
verwirklichen.
Zeichen dieses Willens ist die Beschneidung. Dieser Gotteswille sei
den Nachkommen Abrahams durch Moses am Berg Sinai in der
"Thora" (Lehre/Gesetz) offenbart worden.
Um den Glauben zu schützen entstand eine radikale religiöse und
soziale Abgrenzung vor der Umwelt. Diese wird durch zahlreiche
Vorschriften und Bräuche garantiert, vor allem durch
Speisevorschriften, die eine Tischgemeinschaft mit Nichtjuden
weitgehend ausschließen, ferner durch Bräuche wie Beschneidung oder
Sabbatfeier und durch eine streng geregelte Lebensweise.
Für das Judentum war diese Abgrenzung schicksalsbestimmend. Sie hat
in der Umwelt immer wieder heftige Anfeindungen ausgelöst. Diese
Problematik der jüdischen Existenz forderte den einzelnen wie die jüdische
Gemeinschaft zu ungewöhnlichen Leistungen heraus.
Im Mittelpunkt der Religiosität steht weniger das persönliche Heil,
als der Beitrag des einzelnen zur Erfüllung des Erwählungsauftrags
beziehungsweise zur Verwirklichung der Gottesherrschaft.
Von der hellenistischen Zeit an gab es aber auch freilich die
Vorstellung von der unsterblichen Seele und somit die Frage nach ihrem
Schicksal nach dem Tod bis zur Hoffnung auf Auferstehung des Leibes im
Zusammenhang mit dem "Jüngsten Gericht". Doch kam dem nur
begrenzte Bedeutung zu im Gegensatz zum Christentum.
Zentrum der jüdischen Ortsgemeinde ist in der Regel die Synagoge. Die
Gemeindeleitung obliegt einem Kreis von Wohlhabenden Mitgliedern und
nicht, wie häufig angenommen, dem Rabbiner. Dieser fungiert auch
nicht speziell als Seelsorger, sondern als Lehrer des religiösen
Rechts und als Richter. Der jüdische Gottesdienst findet abends,
morgens und am späten Nachmittag statt und wird durch den Vorbeter
geleitet, dem die Gemeinde nachspricht. Erst im 19. Jahrhundert kamen Chöre
und teilweise die Verwendung der Orgel auf. Kernstücke des häuslichen
Gottesdienstes sind die Stammgebete und Psalmen. Das traditionelle tägliche
Gebetspensum wird in den Gottesdienstordnungen für Sabbat und
Festtage noch weit überboten (z. B. Neujahr, Versöhnungstage,
Passah, Wochenfest) noch weit überboten.
Erst im Reform-Judentum des 19. / 20. Jahrhunderts setzt eine dem
modernen Christentum gleiche Entwicklung zum Gottesdienst als eine
gesonderte religiöse Veranstaltung in Abhebung vom Alltag ein.
JUDAISM
The Religion of Ethical Monotheism
Judaism is among the oldest of the world's major living religions.
Its members have been frequently persecuted and scattered throughout
the world yet have kept their identity. In 1982 Judaism reports
14,336,520 followers. Judaism believes that God is active in the
social and historical process. The amazing achievement of Judaism is
that it has developed the concept of God from that of a primitive
tribal deity to the God of all nations.
The patriarchs of Judaism lived in the Fertile Crescent at the
beginning of the second millennium B.C. The Biblical report speaks of
the calling of Abraham in which he is promised that he will become the
father of a great nation through which all the world will be blessed.
The early Hebrews practiced animal sacrifice and circumcision. The
generic name for God among the Semites wa El. He is referred to
variously as El Shaddai (God of the mountains or God Almighty), El
Elyon (God Most High), El Olam(God everlasting), and Elohim (Gods).
The Hebrews regarded themselves as God's chosen people.
The exodus of the Hebrews from Egypt where they served as slaves is
the most important event in Judaism. Their miraculous delivery from
the Egyptians under the leadership of Moses, the reception of the Ten
Commandments, their forty years in the wilderness, and their conquest
of the promised land are central factors in their religious
consciousness, holidays and observances. The Ark of the Covenant and
the Tent of Meeting were also important in the early days of Judaism.
With the establishment of the Hebrew monarchy under David and
Solomon the religion of Israel took on a more formal character. David
captured Jerusalem and Solomon built the first temple. Although animal
sacrifice remained the main form of worship, prophets added a new
dimension to Judaism. Amos proclaimed the need for personal and
national obedience to a righteous God. Hosea declared that Yahweh was
a God of mercy and love. Isaiah caught a vision of God's holy majesty
and righteousness. Micah's summary of religious duty was "to do
justly, and to love kindness and to walk humbly with thy God."
In 922 B. C. the Hebrews were split into two nations. The northern
kingdom, Israel, was destroyed by the Assyrians in 721 B. C. and the
ten tribes which made up this nation disappeared from history. The
southern kingdom, Judah, survived the Assyrian years but were
conquered by the Babylonians in 586 B. C. Solomon's temple was torn
down and the people were carried into captivity.
During the period of captivity Ezekiel gave the Hebrews hope by
pointing out that they could worship Yahweh in Babylon as well as
Jerusalem and pictured the rise of a new nation in the future. Second
Isaiah described Yahweh as the God of the universe and promised a
messiah to redeem the entire world.
When the Persians captured Babylon in 538 B. C. many Jews under the
leadership of Ezra were allowed to return and rebuild Jerusalem. The
reading of the law in book form took on new significance. The second
temple was built (520 B. C.) and greatly enhanced much later (37-34
B.C.). The Romans destroyed it in 70 A.D. Following the Babylon
captivity the Priestly Code was developed and legalistic Judaism was
established. Later apocalyptic writers like Daniel and Enoch spoke of
the coming of divine deliverance and an idealized future.
The Babylonian captivity was also the beginning of the long history
of the Diaspora. All of the cities in the Roman empire had a Jewish
population. The Jews of the Diaspora developed the institutional
synagogue and the office of rabbi. Following the fall of Jerusalem in
70 A.D. Hebrew scholars gathered and after much debate established the
canon of the Torah--The Law, The Prophets, and the Writings(Old
Testament) as we have it today. Later the Mishnah, (commentaries on
the law) was compiled.
The center of Jewish learning then shifted to Babylon where the
Gemara (serrmonic material on all areas of Jewish life) was brought
together. When the Gemara was added to the Mishnah the resultant
product was called the Talmud. There was a Palestinian Talmud and a
Babylonian Talmud; both are written in Aramaic, while the Mishnah
texts are entirely in Hebrew. During the medieval period Jewish and
Muslim scholars worked together translating Greek and Latin
philosophers into Arabic. Baghdad became the center of Jewish
religious authority during this period.
Renewed persecution of the Jews by Muslim rulers began in 847 and
with the decline of the Babylonian community Spanish Jews became the
leaders of worldwide Judaism. The greatest figure in Spanish Judaism
was the philosopher, talmudist, and physician, Maimonides (1135-1204).
He attempted to harmonize Judaism with the philosophy of Aristotle. In
1391 there was a massacre of thousands of Jews and in 1492 the Jews
and the Moors were expelled from Spain.
Mysticism--the concern for angels, demons, charms, dream
interpretation, messiah predictions, and numerology--in Judaism is
lumped under the heading of Cabala (tradition). The most outstanding
compilation of cabalistic material was the sefcr Hazahar or Zohar
attributed to a second century A.D. leader, Yohai; however, scholars
believe Moses de Leon, a thirteenth century Spanish mystic, is the
author. Cabalistic literature appeals to those who are oppressed and
discouraged. These writings have been popular. This aspiration for
deliverance is also reflected in that many in Jewish history have
claimed to be the expected Messiah.
By the tenth century Europe had become the major location for
Jewish life. The Jews frequently became money lenders to the Christian
nobility. The Christian Crusades set off widespread attacks on Jews in
Europe. Many fled to Poland or Islamic countries where rulers were
more tolerant. By the end of the sixteenth century Poland had the
largest concentration of Jews in the world. Their language was Yiddish,
a combination of German and Hebrew. Jews in European cities were
forced into restricted sections known as Ghettos, which were the worst
parts of the city. The Lateran Council in 1215 decreed that Jews must
wear a yellow badge and in some communities distinctive hats were
required. A revolt in Poland resulted in the slaughter of from 300,000
to 500,000 Jews.
In the mid 1700's Moses Mendelssohn, a learned Jew, began writing
essays in German and was accepted by the literary people and leaders
of his day. He encouraged the Jews to come out of the ghettos and
enter the modern world. About the same time Baal Shem Tov began
preaching that God was not found in scholarly research in the Bible or
the Talmud but in simple heartfelt faith. His followers became known
as the Hasidim (pious ones).
By the nineteenth century Christian nations began making
declarations that people of all faiths had equal rights. In 1848 Jews
were first admitted to European universities. The Alfred Dreyfus trial
in France, however, caused Theodore Herzl and others to realize that
Jewish people would never be treated fairly until they had a land of
their own. This resulted in the birth of the Zionist movement. The
Nazi holocaust in which an estimated six million Jews were killed
intensified this aspiration. Jews in increasing numbers migrated to
Palestine. They were encouraged by the British and when the British
left Palestine in May of 1948, Israel immediately proclaimed statehood.
The following beliefs are central to Judaism: (1) Ethical
monotheism, this doctrine of the one universal God is the central
teaching of Judaism and its gift to the world. (2) The one true God
has revealed his sovereign will through the Prophets. Here Abraham and
Moses are especially important but revelation is progressive and is
continued through the scholars and rabbis. (3) God has chosen Israel
to be his servant to bring men to a true knowledge of God. Israel has
a mission to all mankind. This does not endow the Jews with special
privileges but it does give them special responsibilities. (4) God's
will for man effects all of life. It applies to all people and to all
times and places. Religious duties are especially emphasized in
connection with the family and the welfare of society. The ideals of
truth, justice, humility, faithfulness, and loving-kindness are held
in high regard. Jews are noted for their love of learning.
There are three divisions within modern Judaism. Orthodox Judaism
is rigorous about ritual observances, the dietary laws, and keeping
the Sabbath. It stresses the absolute authority of revealed Law and
looks for the coming of the Messiah. Conservative Judaism, while
continuing rabbinical Judaism, claims the right to adopt the
traditions to the conditions of the modern world. It is less rigid in
the formulation of requirements than Orthodox Judaism. Reformed
Judaism stresses the ethical teachings of the prophets and the growth
of an age of justice, truth, and peace. Judaism is regarded as an
evolving religious experience that is subject to change. (H. H. Titus
- Living Issues of Philosophy)